Social Cognitive Learning Theory

Albert Bandura

Albert Bandura in the early 1960s demonstrated that people can learn by observing the actions of others. He believed that the traditional behavioural views were accurate but not complete because it gave only a partial view of learning. Behavioural views overlooked important elements like social influences on learning. Bandura’s earliest work focused on social behaviours but recently Bandura has focused on cognitive factors such as beliefs, self-perceptions, and expectations so his theory is now called a social cognitive theory. Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) distinguishes between enactive and vicarious learning. Enactive means to learn by doing and experiencing the consequences of your actions. Vicarious learning is learning by observing others like people and animals can learn merely by observing another animal or person.

Bandura’s Social Learning Theory posits that people learn from one another, via observation, imitation, and modeling. The theory has often been called a bridge between behaviorist and cognitive learning theories because it encompasses attention, memory, and motivation.

In the model, the interaction between the person and behavior involves the influences of a person’s thoughts and actions. The interaction between the person and the environment involves human beliefs and cognitive competencies that are developed and modified by social influences and structures within the environment. The third interaction, between the environment and behavior, involves a person’s behavior determining the aspects of their environment and in turn their behavior is modified by that environment.

Observational Learning

Observation can be a very efficient learning process and Bandura notes that observational learning includes four elements; paying attention, retaining information or impressions, producing behaviours, and being motivated to repeat the behaviours.

Reciprocal Influences

In order to learn through observation we understand that close attention is needed. In demonstrating a skill one may need to have the students look at you while you carry out the task that you want them to learn. To imitate the behaviour that they have seen as a model, students have to remember it. This involves mentally representing the models actions in some way. Retention can be improved by mental rehearsal or by actual practice. Practice helps us remember the elements of the desired behaviour such as the sequence of carrying out the task. Production is the phase where practice makes the behaviour smoother and more expert. Sometimes we need  a great deal of practice, feedback and coaching about points before we can produce the behaviour. Also, motivation and reinforcement is required to perform a behaviour.

Bandura noted that external environmental reinforcement was not the only factor to influence learning and behavior. He described intrinsic reinforcement as a form of internal reward, such as pride, satisfaction, and a sense of accomplishment. This emphasis on internal thoughts and cognitions helps connect learning theories to cognitive developmental theories.

Reinforcement can play several roles in observational learning. Also reinforcement is important in imitating the learning. A person who tries a new behaviour is unlikely to persist without reinforcement. Bandura recognizes three forms of reinformcement. It can be done through verbally approving an action, for example saying ‘excellent’ for a satisfactory performance. Vicarious reinforcement increases the chances that we will repeart a behaviour by observing another person being reinforced for that behaviour. Punishement can also be vicarious. You may slow down on a stretch of highway after seeing several people get speeding tickets there. Finally, reinforcement can alos be self-reinforcement or controlling your own reinforcers. We want our students to improve not because it leads to external rewards but because the students value and enjoy their growing competence.

What else is there for us to get to know about this concept of Social Cognitive Theory?

In SCT both the internal and external factors are important like the environmental events, personal factors, and behaviours are seen as interacting in the process of learning. Personal factors like beliefs, expectations or attitudes, the physical and social environment (resources, consequences, physical settings) and behaviour (individual actions, and verbal statements) all influence and are influenced by each other and Bandura named these interactions of forces as reciprocal determinism.

If we apply this concept to the classroom, for example to a new student who has a tattoo and pierced body parts and who happens to be a little late to class it turns out that the teachers initial reaction becomes a little hostile. The student reacts by not caring since the student thinks that the school is worthless and why bother! The teachers sees the students less engagement in classroom work and the cycle continues.

The SCT studies the impact of social factors on individuals which is the influence from social processes outside the learner and the mind which is inside the learner.  

How is social cognitive theory applied in the real world?

Applications of social cognitive theory have been used most widely in the public health sector, but also in general self-help. Doctor's use the self-efficacy ideas of SCT to help patients change undesired behavior using internal controls. Psychologists consider SCT's idea on how schoolchildren learn social behavior and morals as its greatest contribution, Stone reports.

One strength of SCT is that it provides a clear foundation for classroom interventions designed to improve students' learning. In this section, several general implications for instruction derived from the key concepts described above are described.

Observational Learning/Modeling. 

The most basic instructional implication of SCT is that students should be provided frequent access to models of the knowledge, skills, and behaviors they are expected to learn. For example, teachers should model the behaviors and cognitive processes they want students to learn. Effective instruction, moreover, should include multiple types of models (e.g., teacher, peers, parents) and various forms of modeling (e.g. cognitive, verbal, mastery, coping). The inhibitory and disinhibitory effects of modeling, further, necessitate that educators administer rewards and punishments in a careful and consistent manner.

More specifically, instruction based on SCT should support students' engagement in each of the four sub-processes of observational learning. Students' attention can be increased by using models that are viewed as competent, prestigious, and similar to themselves. Students also pay closer attention when the skill or material being demonstrated is considered more personally relevant or interesting. Instruction should support students' retention by facilitating the creation of verbal labels or images through the use of mnemonics, graphic organizers, or other similar learning strategies. Opportunities for rehearsal, both in the form of repeated exposure to models and in the form of time to reflect on the material or skills also assist retention. The effective use of models depends on providing students multiple opportunities to practice the behaviors or skills they have observed. This process will be improved if students are provided feedback about their efforts that is specific, more immediate, and insightful about what the learner is doing well and what needs improvement. Teachers should support the motivational aspects of observational learning through the purposeful use of rewards and punishments. These consequences, further, should shape students' behavior when they are provided either to the learner or to a model. To improve motivation, teachers should also model attitudes that they want students to adopt such as enthusiasm or interest in the material.

Outcome Expectations. 

Instruction should help students to see that classroom learning and the demonstration of that learning leads to personally valued or important outcomes. Students must believe that, if they complete learning tasks successfully, the outcomes they achieve are meaningful, useful, or worthy of the effort necessary to reach them. To encourage these beliefs, teachers should create lessons that emphasize real-world applications and the relevance of material to students' own lives. Decon-textualized instructional practices that obfuscate the benefits of learning should be avoided.

Perceived Self-Efficacy. 

Students will be more active, effortful, and effective learners when they are confident in their ability to complete academic tasks successfully. Hence, instruction should be designed in a way that helps them to develop and sustain their self-efficacy for learning. Most simply, tasks should be moderately challenging so that students do well and make progress when providing reasonable effort. Teachers should ensure that students have the prerequisite knowledge and strategies needed to be successful at more complex and rigorous tasks. In this way, students will develop a pattern of success that fosters positive levels of self-efficacy. Self-efficacy can also be improved when students are exposed to peer models who initially struggle but who ultimately are able to complete tasks effectively (i.e., coping models). Finally, teachers can make direct statements to learners or models as a way to boost their confidence. Such statements, however, must be credible or they will be discounted or ignored by learners.

Goal Setting. 

Instruction should help students to set effective goals by addressing the properties found in the most effective goals. Instructional practices should promote students' efforts to set attainable goals that are clear, specific, and moderately challenging. In order to show progress and to maintain self-efficacy, learning goals should be attainable with moderate levels of effort. These goals will also reduce disappointment and frustration that students might feel if they fail to reach their goals. Specific goals are more effective than general or vague goals in spurring students to action and in guiding their behavior. Students should have both distal and more short-term goals for their learning in school. However, proximal goals are more effective at guiding behavior because they allow for more immediate feedback about progress. Finally, goals that students set or endorse themselves have a bigger impact on their behavior than goals that are assigned. Hence, instruction should help students develop the ability and willingness to form their own academic goals.

Self-Regulation. 

According to SCT, all students should be supported in their efforts to be self-regulated learners. In addition to fostering self-efficacy and effective goal setting, teachers should help students become skilled at self-observation, self-judgment, and self-reaction. Teachers can promote self-observation by helping students learn how to monitor different aspects of their academic behavior. Practices such as journal writing, checklists, and time for self-reflection help students develop these skills. For self-judgment, students must learn how to evaluate their performance in light of the goals or standards they have set. Teachers can facilitate this process through modeling and by supporting students' own efforts to compare their performance to both absolute and normative standards. Teachers should also help students see the value and relevance of the standards in order to encourage their self-judgment. The self-reaction process depends on students' ability to respond adaptively both when they are making progress and when they are not. For the former, instructional practices should assist students in learning how to self-administer reinforcements for their own efforts using both concrete and internal rewards. For the latter, instruction should support students in their efforts to evaluate and modify their learning strategies in order to improve progress. As with all skills, students can development these self-regulatory abilities vicariously and with guided opportunities to practice them firsthand.

In conclusion, social cognitive theory is helpful for understanding and predicting both individual and group behavior and identifying methods in which behavior can be modified or changed.